Guides tagged “Electrical”

Design first-order RC filters with the cutoff formula f_c = 1/(2π·R·C), Bode plots, and worked examples for audio tone control, PWM smoothing, and ADC anti-aliasing. Includes component tolerance rules and when to move to higher-order topologies.

How to estimate battery runtime for IoT sensors, portable electronics, and lead-acid systems. Covers mAh vs Wh, duty cycle math, Peukert effect, depth of discharge, temperature derating, and self-discharge with worked examples.

Understand when resistors are in series or parallel, how to calculate equivalent resistance, and why current, voltage, tolerance, and power behave differently.

Why a voltage divider changes when a load is attached, how Thévenin resistance predicts the error, and when to buffer or redesign the divider.

Pick resistor values that satisfy the math and the hardware: tolerance, power, E-series availability, input impedance, noise, and heat.

Step-by-step LED resistor sizing with worked examples for Arduino indicators, 12 V automotive LEDs, series chains, and parallel branches. Covers the formula, E-series values, power ratings, and when to switch to a constant-current driver.

Step-by-step voltage drop formula with worked examples for kitchen circuits, EV chargers, landscape lighting, and three-phase feeders. Includes NEC 3%/5% rules, max-length reference table, and copper vs. aluminum comparison.

Full color code chart for 4, 5, and 6 band resistors plus SMD codes and E-series preferred values. Worked examples, mnemonics, and field tips.

Full AWG chart from 4/0 to 40 with diameters, areas, resistance, and NEC ampacity. Covers AWG-to-mm² conversion, how to pick wire gauge by voltage drop, and copper vs. aluminum.